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Beyond fNIRS-based applications, previous investigations into outcomes. If cognitive training (e.g., neurostimulation, work-
brain activity during rifle and pistol marksmanship tasks have ing memory enhancement) leads to improved accuracy, faster
used electroencephalography (EEG) to assess neural activity reaction times and better decision-making, it would suggest a
based on proficiency level (for a comprehensive review, refer direct causal link between PFC function and marksmanship
47
to Martins and colleagues). Decreased cortical activity has ability.
been linked to higher accuracy in stationary pistol marksman-
ship tasks, 48,49 and higher PFC coherence has been observed Moving forward, fNIRS has the potential to be a field-ready
30
in proficient rifle shooters. Additionally, global increases in physiological tool for real-time biofeedback, enabling the
theta, beta, and gamma power within the temporal and parietal identification of performance-based differences in individuals
regions during the shooting preparation stage (i.e., 6s before during tasks specific to the military. In the context of the current
the shot) have been observed in proficient marksmen compared findings, fNIRS could be integrated into marksmanship train-
to less proficient marksmen and have been associated with im- ing tasks where individuals who are low performers (despite
proved attentional focus in skilled marksmen. 50,51 While differ- standard training) may benefit from incorporating cognitive
ent brain regions were highlighted in these studies, our fNIRS load management techniques (such as autonomic regulation,
findings within the PFC align with these results, suggesting that time pressure management, and selective attention training, to
proficient marksmen manage the demands of dynamic shooting promote more efficient PFC regulation). 10,55 For example, tacti-
tasks more efficiently than non-proficient marksmen (Figure 2). cal breathing has been shown to improve tactical performance
In the context of neuroimaging techniques, EEG is inherently when used as a relaxation technique; however, the hemo-
more susceptible to motion artifacts within the head and up- dynamic responses of the PFC have not been investigated. 56,57
per body, which limits its applications to field applications that Understanding the psychophysiological responses leading to
require dynamic movements or tactical engagements. In con- poor tactical performance can be used to develop individual-
34
trast, fNIRS allows for natural movement, typically is smaller ized training programs that target the deficit limiting perfor-
in size, and can be deployed in more real-world environments. mance. Future interventions could modulate PFC activity (such
24
Thus, integrating fNIRS for military applications may be a ro- as cognitive training or neuromodulation) to assess their direct
bust and applicable neuroimaging technique for monitoring impact on marksmanship performance. Clarifying whether en-
warfighter performance in training. hancing PFC efficiency translates to operational improvements
would provide valuable insight for training strategies.
While this study provides novel insights into proficiency-based
differences in PFC activation during dynamic marksmanship Conclusion
tasks, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the
sample consisted of civilians who would be considered novice Understanding group differences in PFC activation during
marksmen, which may limit the generalizability of these find- marksmanship tasks can provide critical insight into the neu-
ings to experienced shooters such as Special Operations Forces. ral and neurovascular mechanisms underlying superior per-
While our findings align with the neural efficiency hypothesis, formance in military personnel. This study supports the use
future research should include a broader range of expertise lev- of fNIRS-based technology as a tool for identifying cognitive
els to determine whether similar trends exist in elite marksmen load differences in marksmen with differing proficiency levels.
and servicemembers operating under high-stress conditions. Incorporating fNIRS as a physiological biofeedback tool can
be useful for developing more comprehensive marksmanship
Second, although the study was designed to stratify partici- training regimens that improve marksmanship skills and en-
pants based on marksmanship performance, it did not spe- hance cognitive resilience, leaving servicemembers better pre-
cifically account for potential sex-related differences in PFC pared for real-world operations.
activation, and as a result, the man-to-woman ratio differed
between groups (proficient: 8 men / 4 women, non-proficient: Author Contributions
4 men / 8 women). Prior literature suggests that sex-based OFS and CMS conceived the study concept. OFS, CBU, MDS,
differences in PFC activation may exist during cognitive and HDD, JRT, RMR, and CMS recruited participants. OFS, TXS,
motor tasks, potentially influencing the fNIRS-derived hemo- HDD, JRT, MDS, CBU, and RMR coordinated and collected
dynamic outcomes. 52–54 However, our statistical approach the data, and OFS and CMS analyzed the data. OFS, TXS, and
accounted for inter-individual variability by including the in- CMS wrote the first draft. All authors read and approved the
tercept as random factors, and sex differences were not an- final manuscript.
ticipated to systematically impact marksmanship performance
in this context. Future studies should consider balancing sex Disclosures
distribution across proficiency levels to clarify its influence on The authors have indicated they have no financial relation-
PFC activity during marksmanship. ships relevant to this article to disclose.
Last, this study observed distinct patterns of PFC activation, Funding
as reflected in fNIRS-derived hemodynamic variables, between The authors have indicated they have no financial relation-
individuals stratified by proficiency level; however, causality ships relevant to this article to disclose.
cannot be definitively established. While greater cognitive load
in non-proficient marksmen may indicate inefficient neural References
processing, it remains unclear whether skilled marksmen nat- 1. Kerick SE. Neurocognitive adaptations associated with marksman-
urally exhibit lower cognitive load due to experience-driven ship training. Dissertation. University of Maryland, College Park;
2001. Accessed September 9, 2024. https://www.proquest.com/
efficiency. To determine any potential causality, future research docview/250713016/abstract/6D42D53FF0AF4492PQ/1
should employ interventional studies that systematically increase 2. Hatfield B, Haufler A, Contreras-Vidal J. Brain processes and
or decrease PFC activation while measuring marksmanship neurofeedback for performance enhancement of precision motor

fNIRS-differentiated Marksmanship Performance | 19