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neuroscience that have occurred over the last 30 years, it may transmitted in an enzootic cycle between various feline spe-
be found that they may signal a shift in the practice of modern cies and several types of rodents. It is believed that T. gondii
warfare that goes beyond the realm of psychological opera- evolved the ability to alter the behavior of its mammalian hosts
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tions and information dominance into the realm of focused as a way of self-preservation. This parasite inhibits the nor-
attacks on the physical architecture of cognition itself. The mal fear response of host rodents, allowing them to be more
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term neuroweapon has been used to describe those technol- easily captured and ingested by cats. Such activity enables
ogies that are capable of degrading or modifying the human the parasite to quickly and efficiently move from host to host.
nervous system with the intent of affecting the cognitive, emo- Interestingly, human studies have demonstrated that there is
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tional, or motor function status of the enemy. Neuroweapons an increase in the risk-taking behavior of humans who become
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may come in many forms and be delivered by a wide variety infected with T. gondii. The intentional inoculation of mili-
of systems. The human mind can be affected by neurochemi- tary personnel or civilian policy and decision-makers with this
cal agents, biological agents, or directed energy (sonic energy agent might increase risk-taking behavior to a level that leads
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and electromagnetic radiation). Intriguingly, the concept of to incorrect calculations and faulty maneuvers. These deficits
attacking the cognitive process in war is not a new one. As might be exploited by an adversary and give them an unex-
early as the fourth century B.C., the Chinese general, strategist, pected competitive advantage.
tactician, and military writer known as Sun Tzu stated, “To
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subdue the enemy without fighting is the acme of skill.” The Throughout evolution, the human nervous system has been
application of recent advances in neuroscience, physics, and the target of the toxic chemical byproducts of both terres-
biological psychology to military tactics, operations, and strat- trial and marine organisms. These neurotoxins include saxi-
egy might lead to a future in which winning cognitive wars toxin, tetrodotoxin, conotoxin, bungarotoxin, tetanus toxin,
and neurological battles may be just as important as conven- taipoxin, and botulinum toxin. At least six countries (Japan,
tional kinetic confrontation. It may also lead to a future in the UK, U.S., Germany, USSR, and Iraq) are known to have
which the nervous system is seen as a center of gravity and conducted research operations into the development of bio-
a primary object of direct attack. Consequently, U.S. military logical neurotoxin-based weapons. Among these, botulinum
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medical personnel need to be prepared to deal with the casu- toxin has the greatest number of unique properties conducive
alties of both current and future neurological weapons and be to weaponizing. First documented as a food-borne pathogen in
capable of developing methods to prevent, identify, and miti- the late 1700s, botulinum toxin refers to a group of proteins
gate the impact of their use on military operations. produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum and related
species. It acts on the peripheral nervous system by blocking
the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at the neuro-
Biological Neuroweapons
muscular junction, resulting in symmetrical flaccid paralysis
Cognition is a direct result of the underlying physical archi- that progresses over hours to days without fever or altered sen-
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tect of the brain. Eons of predator and prey interaction have sorium. In addition, botulinum toxin can gain access to the
driven the evolution of bacterial, viral, and fungal pathogens central nervous system and alter brain function. It is worth
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to the point that they can alter the underlying structures of the noting that the symptom severity of this agent is directly re-
nervous system. Numerous studies have identified a positive lated to dose, and therefore the effects can possibly be tailored
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association between perinatal infection with specific viruses, for specific purposes by an adversary. It has been found that as
bacteria, and fungi and the development of cognitive lesions, little as 0.7–0.9µg of botulinum toxin can be lethal if it is ac-
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such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Indeed, in the quired through the inhalational route. Case confirmation can
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years immediately following the conclusion of the 1918 In- be time-consuming and is typically done by detection of the
fluenza Pandemic, cases of Parkinson’s disease and other neu- toxin itself or by identification of the causative organism by
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rological disorders were reported to have increased. These culture, but this approach may take more than 24 hours. 30,31
phenomena may have been linked to instances of virus-induced To treat casualties resulting from this potential neuroweapon,
damage to the brain, as current research indicates that influ- a high index of suspicion will be needed, and prompt initiation
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enza infection in experimental animals can lead to neurolog- of antitoxin treatment and supportive care will be required.
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ical lesions, behavioral changes, and structural alterations. Thus, military medical personnel will need to be aware of the
In addition, SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19, potential for the deployment of this agent and have the neces-
has been shown to be a neurotropic virus. Infection with it sary supplies and reagents ready and available.
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has been positively associated with the development of neu-
rological symptoms and the subsequent formation of vari- It is important to note that both the C. botulinum bacteria
ous cognitive impairments. It remains to be seen whether and the purified toxin can be aerosolized. Consequently, they
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there will be any long-term neurological consequences from were studied as potential bioweapons at Fort Detrick during
the COVID-19 pandemic and whether this agent can be used World War II. A variety of non-state actors have also stud-
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for offensive purposes. However, it is possible that the inten- ied and developed botulinum toxin as a weapon. It was im-
tional distribution of similar neurotropic viruses can be used plicated (but not confirmed) in the assassination of Reinhard
as neuroweapons. Therefore, the neurological effects of viral Heydrich, the acting reich-protector of Bohemia and Moravia
pathogens should be closely monitored and evaluated for wea- in May 1942, and it is suspected to have been prepared for
ponization potential. In addition, efforts should be undertaken use by the West-German terrorist group Red Army Faction in
to characterize, diagnose, and treat the effects of these agents. 1980. This agent was also used by the Japanese cult Aum
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Shinrikyo during the 1990s in multiple terrorist attempts that
Parasites collectively form the most well-known and the fortunately did not result in any casualties, as the plans were
most extensively studied group of organisms that have been foiled because of a failure to correctly isolate the strains of
found capable of altering human cognition. The alveolate, C. botulinum that produce toxin. These cases indicate that,
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Toxoplasma gondii is a eukaryotic parasite that is typically while the bacteria may be easy to acquire, weapon production
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